Astronomy is a branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. Astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. It is difficult to fix the exact date when systematic observations of the heavens began. In many primitive civilizations the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were made to keep records and predict future events. The first practical function of astronomy was to provide a basis for the calendar, the units of month and year being determined by astronomical observations. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The Chinese had a working calendar as early as the 13th century B.C. Chinese astronomy is best known today for its observations or supernovas, or “guest stars”, as they were called. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians were also active in astronomy. The earliest astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy from the pseudoscience of astrology. In fact, an early motivation for the detailed study of planetary positions was the preparation of horoscopes. The highest development of astronomy in the ancient world came with the Greeks in the period from 600 B.C. to A.D. 400.
The methods employed by the Greek astronomers were quite distinct from those of earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonian. The Babylonian approach was numerological and best suited for studying the complex lunar motions that was of overwhelming interest to the Mesopotamian peoples. The Greek approach, on the contrary, was geometric and schematic, best suited for complete cosmological models. Thales, an Ionian philosopher of the 6th century B.C., is credited with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy. Pythagoras, about a hundred years later, imagined the universe as a series of concentric spheres in which each of the seven “wanderers” (the sun, the moon, and the five known planets) were embedded. The spheres rotated independently, producing the “music of the spheres.” Euxo- dus developed the idea of rotating spheres by introducing extra spheres for each of the planets to account for the observed complexities of their motions. This was the beginning of the Greek aim of “saving the appearances”, that is, providing a theory that would account for all observed phenomena. The theoretical models of the universe did not necessarily correspond to absolute truth or reality, which, according to Plato, was inaccessible to man and could only be approached or approximated. This Creek attitude toward scientific knowledge mirrors modern positivism. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) summarized much of the Greek work before him and remained absolute authority until late in the Middle Ages. Although his belief that the earth does not move was to have a retarding effect on astronomical progress, he gave the correct explanation of lunar eclipses and a sound argument for the spherical shape of the earth. The apex of Greek astronomy was reached in the Hellenistic period by the Alexandrian school. Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.) determined the sizes and distances of the moon and sun relative to the earth and advocated a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. Although there were errors in his assumptions, his approach was truly scientific; his work was the first serious attempt to make a scale model of the universe. The first accurate measurement of the actual (as opposed to relative) size of the earth was made by Eratosthenes (284-192 B.C.).
The greatest astronomer of antiquity was Hipparchus (190— 120 B.C.). He developed trigonometry and used it to determine astronomical distances from the observed angular positions of celestial bodies. He recognized that astronomy requires accurate and systematic observations extended over long time periods. He therefore made great use of old observations, comparing them to his own. Many of his observations, particularly of the planets, were intended for future astronomers.
During this period European astronomy was largely dormant, and the only significant work was carried out by the Muslims and the Hindus. It was by way of Moorish Spain that Greek astronomy reached medieval Europe. One of the great landmarks of the revival of learning in Europe that brought about the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th century, was the publication (1543) by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) of his On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. According to his system, the earth rotates on its axis and, with all the other planets, revolves around the sun. The assertion that the earth is not the centre of the universe was to have profound philosophical and religious consequences. Copernicus’s principal claim for his new system was that it made calculations easier. He still retained the epicycles and uniform circular motion of the Ptolemaic system; but by placing the sun at the centre, he was able to reduce the number of epicycles. Copernicus also determined the sidereal periods (time for one revolution around the sun) of the planets and their distance from the sun relative to the sun- earth distance.
The next great astronomer, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was principally an observer; a conservative in matters of theory, he rejected the notion that the earth moves. Under the patronage of King Frederick II, Tycho established a superb observatory on the Danish island of Hveen. Over a period of 20 years (1576—1597), he and his assistants compiled the most accurate and complete astronomical observations the world had seen. At his death his records passed to Johannes Kepler (1571—1630), who had been his last assistant, in Prague. Kepler spent nearly a decade trying to fit Tycho’s observations, particularly of Mars, into an improved system of heliocentric circular motion. At last, he conceived the idea that the orbit of Mars was an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
Galileo Galilei (1564—1642) made fundamental discoveries in both astronomy and physics; he is perhaps the single man best described as the founder of modern science. Galileo was the first to make astronomical use of the telescope. His discoveries of the four largest moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus were persuasive evidence for the Copernican cosmology. His discoveries of craters on the moon and blemishes on the sun discredited the ancient belief in the perfection of the heavens.
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天文学は惑星、星や銀河などの天体の運動を研究する科学の一分野と。天文学は、おそらく純粋な科学の最も古い。天の系統的な観察を始めたとき正確な日付を修正することは困難です。多くの原始的な文明で天体の動きの規則性が認められたと記録し、将来の出来事を予測する設定の試みが行われました。天文学の最初の実用的な機能は、カレンダー月と天体観測によって決定されている年間の単位の基準を提供することだった。その後、天文学は、ナビゲーションおよび計時に提供しています。中国語には早くも紀元前 13 世紀中国天文学、有名今日観測または超新星、または「客星」と呼ばれていた作業カレンダーであった。バビロニア人、アッシリア人、エジプト人、また天文学で活躍しました。最も早い天文学者が単独と天文学と占星術の疑似科学を区別する試みがなされました。実際には、惑星の位置の詳細な研究の初期の動機は、占いの準備だった。古代世界の天文学の最も高い開発付属ギリシア人時代に 600年紀元前から西暦 400。The methods employed by the Greek astronomers were quite distinct from those of earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonian. The Babylonian approach was numerological and best suited for studying the complex lunar motions that was of overwhelming interest to the Mesopotamian peoples. The Greek approach, on the contrary, was geometric and schematic, best suited for complete cosmological models. Thales, an Ionian philosopher of the 6th century B.C., is credited with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy. Pythagoras, about a hundred years later, imagined the universe as a series of concentric spheres in which each of the seven “wanderers” (the sun, the moon, and the five known planets) were embedded. The spheres rotated independently, producing the “music of the spheres.” Euxo- dus developed the idea of rotating spheres by introducing extra spheres for each of the planets to account for the observed complexities of their motions. This was the beginning of the Greek aim of “saving the appearances”, that is, providing a theory that would account for all observed phenomena. The theoretical models of the universe did not necessarily correspond to absolute truth or reality, which, according to Plato, was inaccessible to man and could only be approached or approximated. This Creek attitude toward scientific knowledge mirrors modern positivism. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) summarized much of the Greek work before him and remained absolute authority until late in the Middle Ages. Although his belief that the earth does not move was to have a retarding effect on astronomical progress, he gave the correct explanation of lunar eclipses and a sound argument for the spherical shape of the earth. The apex of Greek astronomy was reached in the Hellenistic period by the Alexandrian school. Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.) determined the sizes and distances of the moon and sun relative to the earth and advocated a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. Although there were errors in his assumptions, his approach was truly scientific; his work was the first serious attempt to make a scale model of the universe. The first accurate measurement of the actual (as opposed to relative) size of the earth was made by Eratosthenes (284-192 B.C.).古代の偉大な天文学者は、ヒッパルコス (紀元前 190-120年) だった。彼は、三角法を開発し、天体の観測角度位置から天文学的な距離を決定するために使用します。彼は天文学が長時間にわたり拡張正確かつ体系的な観察を必要とすることを認識しました。彼その偉大な使用の古い観察した、彼自身と比較します。特に惑星の彼の観察の多くは将来の天文学者の意図されていた。この期間の間にヨーロッパの天文学は、主として休眠状態だった、唯一の重要な仕事は、イスラム教徒とヒンズー教徒によって行われました。ムーア スペイン中世ヨーロッパに達したそのギリシャの天文学経由でだった。16、17 世紀の科学革命をもたらしたヨーロッパの学習の復活の偉大な建造物の一つは、ニコラウス ・ コペルニクス (1473年-1543) 彼の回転の天体によってパブリケーション (1543 年) だった。彼のシステムによると地球はその軸を中心に回転し、他のすべての惑星と太陽の周りを中心に展開します。地球ではないという主張宇宙の中心は、深遠な哲学的、宗教的な影響を持っていたです。コペルニクスの彼の新しいシステムの主たる主張は、それは簡単に計算をしたことだった。彼はまだ等速円運動とプトレマイオス システムの効用を保持しかし、太陽を配置すると、センターで、効用の数を減らすことができました。コペルニクスはまた、惑星と太陽地球の距離を基準にして太陽からの距離の恒星期間 (太陽の周りを 1 回転の時間) を定めます。次偉大な天文学者、ティコ ・ ブラーエ (1546年-1601) は主としてオブザーバー。理論の問題で保守的な人、彼は地球を回っている概念を拒絶しました。めざす王フリードリヒ 2 世の庇護の下では、ティコは、当時のデンマークの島の素晴らしい展望台を設立しました。20 年の期間にわたって (1576年-1597年)、彼と彼のアシスタントのコンパイル、最も正確かつ完全な天体観測の世界を見ていた。彼の死で彼のレコードはプラハの彼の最後の助手であったヨハネス ・ ケプラー (1571年-1630) に渡されます。ケプラーは、ティコの観測、特に円形ヒーリオセン トリック モーションの改良されたシステムに火星をフィットさせようと 10 年近くを過ごした。最後に、彼は 1 つの焦点で太陽と楕円を火星の軌道にあったアイデアを考案しました。ガリレオ ・ ガリレイ (1564年-1642) は天文学と物理学の基本的な発見をしました。彼はおそらく、現代科学の創設者として記述されている単一の男最高です。ガリレオは望遠鏡の天文学を真っ先に使用します。木星の 4 大衛星、金星の満ち欠けの彼の発見は、コペルニクスの宇宙論の説得力のある証拠だった。月面のクレーターや太陽の傷の彼の発見には、天と地の完成度で古代の信念が疑われます。
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