Astronomy is a branch of science th

Astronomy is a branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. Astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. It is difficult to fix the exact date when systematic observations of the heavens began. In many primitive civilizations the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were made to keep records and predict future events. The first practical function of astronomy was to provide a basis for the calendar, the units of month and year being determined by astronomical observations. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The Chinese had a working calendar as early as the 13th century B.C. Chinese astronomy is best known today for its observations or supernovas, or “guest stars”, as they were called. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians were also active in astronomy. The earliest astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy from the pseudoscience of astrology. In fact, an early motivation for the detailed study of planetary positions was the preparation of horoscopes. The highest development of astronomy in the ancient world came with the Greeks in the period from 600 B.C. to A.D. 400.
The methods employed by the Greek astronomers were quite distinct from those of earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonian. The Babylonian approach was numerological and best suited for studying the complex lunar motions that was of overwhelming interest to the Mesopotamian peoples. The Greek approach, on the contrary, was geometric and schematic, best suited for complete cosmological models. Thales, an Ionian philosopher of the 6th century B.C., is credited with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy. Pythagoras, about a hundred years later, imagined the universe as a series of concentric spheres in which each of the seven “wanderers” (the sun, the moon, and the five known planets) were embedded. The spheres rotated independently, producing the “music of the spheres.” Euxo- dus developed the idea of rotating spheres by introducing extra spheres for each of the planets to account for the observed complexities of their motions. This was the beginning of the Greek aim of “saving the appearances”, that is, providing a theory that would account for all observed phenomena. The theoretical models of the universe did not necessarily correspond to absolute truth or reality, which, according to Plato, was inaccessible to man and could only be approached or approximated. This Creek attitude toward scientific knowledge mirrors modern positivism. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) summarized much of the Greek work before him and remained absolute authority until late in the Middle Ages. Although his belief that the earth does not move was to have a retarding effect on astronomical progress, he gave the correct explanation of lunar eclipses and a sound argument for the spherical shape of the earth. The apex of Greek astronomy was reached in the Hellenistic period by the Alexandrian school. Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.) determined the sizes and distances of the moon and sun relative to the earth and advocated a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. Although there were errors in his assumptions, his approach was truly scientific; his work was the first serious attempt to make a scale model of the universe. The first accurate measurement of the actual (as opposed to relative) size of the earth was made by Eratosthenes (284-192 B.C.).
The greatest astronomer of antiquity was Hipparchus (190— 120 B.C.). He developed trigonometry and used it to determine astronomical distances from the observed angular positions of celestial bodies. He recognized that astronomy requires accurate and systematic observations extended over long time periods. He therefore made great use of old observations, comparing them to his own. Many of his observations, particularly of the planets, were intended for future astronomers.
During this period European astronomy was largely dormant, and the only significant work was carried out by the Muslims and the Hindus. It was by way of Moorish Spain that Greek astronomy reached medieval Europe. One of the great landmarks of the revival of learning in Europe that brought about the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th century, was the publication (1543) by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) of his On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. According to his system, the earth rotates on its axis and, with all the other planets, revolves around the sun. The assertion that the earth is not the centre of the universe was to have profound philosophical and religious consequences. Copernicus’s principal claim for his new system was that it made calculations easier. He still retained the epicycles and uniform circular motion of the Ptolemaic system; but by placing the sun at the centre, he was able to reduce the number of epicycles. Copernicus also determined the sidereal periods (time for one revolution around the sun) of the planets and their distance from the sun relative to the sun- earth distance.
The next great astronomer, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was principally an observer; a conservative in matters of theory, he rejected the notion that the earth moves. Under the patronage of King Frederick II, Tycho established a superb observatory on the Danish island of Hveen. Over a period of 20 years (1576—1597), he and his assistants compiled the most accurate and complete astronomical observations the world had seen. At his death his records passed to Johannes Kepler (1571—1630), who had been his last assistant, in Prague. Kepler spent nearly a decade trying to fit Tycho’s observations, particularly of Mars, into an improved system of heliocentric circular motion. At last, he conceived the idea that the orbit of Mars was an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
Galileo Galilei (1564—1642) made fundamental discoveries in both astronomy and physics; he is perhaps the single man best described as the founder of modern science. Galileo was the first to make astronomical use of the telescope. His discoveries of the four largest moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus were persuasive evidence for the Copernican cosmology. His discoveries of craters on the moon and blemishes on the sun discredited the ancient belief in the perfection of the heavens.

Результаты (английский) 1:

Astronomy is a branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. Astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. It is difficult to fix the exact date when systematic observations of the heavens began. In many primitive civilizations the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts setting were made to keep records and to predict future events. The first practical function of astronomy was to provide a basis for the calendar, the units of month and year being determined by astronomical observations. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The Chinese had a working calendar as early as the 13th century B.C. Chinese astronomy is best known today for its observations or supernovas, or "guest stars", as they were called. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians were also active in astronomy. The earliest astronomers were alone, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy from the pseudoscience of astrology. In fact, an early motivation for the detailed study of planetary positions was the preparation of horoscopes. The highest development of astronomy in the ancient world came with the Greeks in the period from 600 B.C. to A.D. 400.The methods employed by the Greek astronomers were quite distinct from those of earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonian. The Babylonian approach was numerological and best suited for studying the complex lunar motions that was of overwhelming interest to the Mesopotamian peoples. The Greek approach, on the contrary, was geometric and schematic, best suited for complete cosmological models. Thales, an Ionian philosopher of the 6th century B.C., is credited with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy. Pythagoras, about a hundred years later, imagined the universe as a series of concentric spheres in which each of the seven “wanderers” (the sun, the moon, and the five known planets) were embedded. The spheres rotated independently, producing the “music of the spheres.” Euxo- dus developed the idea of rotating spheres by introducing extra spheres for each of the planets to account for the observed complexities of their motions. This was the beginning of the Greek aim of “saving the appearances”, that is, providing a theory that would account for all observed phenomena. The theoretical models of the universe did not necessarily correspond to absolute truth or reality, which, according to Plato, was inaccessible to man and could only be approached or approximated. This Creek attitude toward scientific knowledge mirrors modern positivism. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) summarized much of the Greek work before him and remained absolute authority until late in the Middle Ages. Although his belief that the earth does not move was to have a retarding effect on astronomical progress, he gave the correct explanation of lunar eclipses and a sound argument for the spherical shape of the earth. The apex of Greek astronomy was reached in the Hellenistic period by the Alexandrian school. Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.) determined the sizes and distances of the moon and sun relative to the earth and advocated a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. Although there were errors in his assumptions, his approach was truly scientific; his work was the first serious attempt to make a scale model of the universe. The first accurate measurement of the actual (as opposed to relative) size of the earth was made by Eratosthenes (284-192 B.C.).The greatest astronomer of antiquity was Hipparchus (190-120 B.C.). He developed trigonometry and used it to determine astronomical distances from the observed angular positions of celestial bodies. He recognized that astronomy requires accurate and systematic observations extended over long time periods. He therefore made great use of old observations, comparing them to his own. Many of his observations, particularly of the planets, were intended for future astronomers.During this period European astronomy was largely dormant, and the only significant work was carried out by the Muslims and the Hindus. It was by way of Moorish Spain that Greek astronomy reached medieval Europe. One of the great landmarks of the revival of learning in Europe that brought about the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th century, was the publication (1543) by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) of his On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. According to his system, the earth rotates on its axis and, with all the other planets, revolves around the sun. The assertion that the earth is not the centre of the universe was to have profound philosophical and religious consequences. Copernicus's principal claim for his new system was that it made calculations easier. He still retained the uniform circular motion and epicycles of the Ptolemaic system; but by placing the sun at the centre, he was able to reduce the number of epicycles. Copernicus also determined the sidereal periods (time for one revolution around the sun) of the planets and their distance from the sun relative to the sun-earth distance.The next great astronomer, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was principally an observer; a conservative in matters of theory, he rejected the notion that the earth moves. Under the patronage which aims of King Frederick II, Tycho established a superb observatory on the Danish island of Hveen. Over a period of 20 years (1576 — 1597), he and his assistants compiled the most accurate and complete astronomical observations the world had seen. At his death his records passed to Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who had been his last assistant, in Prague. Kepler spent nearly a decade trying to fit Tycho's observations, particularly of Mars into an improved system of circular heliocentric motion. At last, he conceived the idea that the orbit of Mars was an ellipse with the sun at one focus.Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made fundamental discoveries in both astronomy and physics; He is perhaps the single man best described as the founder of modern science. Galileo was the first to make astronomical use of the telescope. His discoveries of the four largest moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus were persuasive evidence for the Copernican cosmology. His discoveries of craters on the moon and blemishes on the sun discredited the ancient belief in the perfection of the heavens.

Результаты (английский) 2:

Astronomy is a branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. Astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. It is difficult to fix the exact date when systematic observations of the heavens began. In many primitive civilizations the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were made ​​to keep records and predict future events. The first practical function of astronomy was to provide a basis for the calendar, the units of month and year being determined by astronomical observations. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The Chinese had a working calendar as early as the 13th century BC Chinese astronomy is best known today for its observations or supernovas, or "guest stars", as they were called. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians were also active in astronomy. The earliest astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made ​​to separate astronomy from the pseudoscience of astrology. In fact, an early motivation for the detailed study of planetary positions was the preparation of horoscopes. The highest development of astronomy in the ancient world came with the Greeks in the period from AD 600 to 400. BC
The methods employed by the Greek astronomers were quite distinct from those of earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonian. The Babylonian approach was numerological and best suited for studying the complex lunar motions that was of overwhelming interest to the Mesopotamian peoples. The Greek approach, on the contrary, was geometric and schematic, best suited for complete cosmological models. Thales, an Ionian philosopher of the 6th century BC, is credited with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy. Pythagoras, about a hundred years later, imagined the universe as a series of concentric spheres in which each of the seven "wanderers" (the sun, the moon, and the five known planets) were embedded. The spheres rotated independently, producing the "music of the spheres." Euxo- dus developed the idea of rotating spheres by introducing extra spheres for each of the planets to account for the observed complexities of their motions. This was the beginning of the Greek aim of "saving the appearances", that is, providing a theory that would account for all observed phenomena. The theoretical models of the universe did not necessarily correspond to absolute truth or reality, which, according to Plato, was inaccessible to man and could only be approached or approximated. This Creek attitude toward scientific knowledge mirrors modern positivism. Aristotle (384-322 BC) summarized much of the Greek work before him and remained absolute authority until late in the Middle Ages. Although his belief that the earth does not move was to have a retarding effect on astronomical progress, he gave the correct explanation of lunar eclipses and a sound argument for the spherical shape of the earth. The apex of Greek astronomy was reached in the Hellenistic period by the Alexandrian school. Aristarchus (310-230 BC) determined the sizes and distances of the moon and sun relative to the earth and advocated a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. Although there were errors in his assumptions, his approach was truly scientific; his work was the first serious attempt to make a scale model of the universe. First accurate measurement The of the actual (as opposed to relative) size of the earth was made ​​by Eratosthenes (284-192 BC).
The greatest astronomer of antiquity was Hipparchus (190- 120 BC). He developed trigonometry and used it to determine astronomical distances from the observed angular positions of celestial bodies. He recognized that astronomy requires accurate and systematic observations extended over long time periods. He therefore made ​​great use of old observations, comparing them to his own. His observations of Many, particularly of the planets, were intended for future astronomers.
During this period European astronomy was largely dormant, and the only significant work was carried out by the Muslims and the Hindus. It was by way of Moorish Spain that Greek astronomy reached medieval Europe. One of the great landmarks of the revival of learning in Europe that brought about the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th century, was the publication (in 1543) by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) of his On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. According to his system, the earth rotates on its axis and, with all the other planets, revolves around the sun. The assertion that the earth is not the centre of the universe was to have profound philosophical and religious consequences. Copernicus's principal claim for his new system was that it made ​​calculations easier. He still retained the epicycles and uniform circular motion of the Ptolemaic system; but by placing the sun at the centre, he was able to reduce the number of epicycles. Also determined the Copernicus sidereal periods (time for one revolution around the sun) of the planets and their distance from the sun relative to the sun- earth distance.
The next great astronomer, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was principally an observer; a conservative in matters of theory, he rejected the notion that the earth moves. Under the patronage of King Frederick II, Tycho established a superb observatory on the Danish island of Hveen. Over a period of 20 years (1576-1597), he and his assistants compiled the most accurate and complete astronomical observations the world had seen. At his death his records passed to Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who had been his last assistant, in Prague. Kepler spent nearly a decade trying to fit Tycho's observations, particularly of Mars, into an improved system of heliocentric circular motion. Last At, he conceived the idea that the orbit of Mars was an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made ​​fundamental discoveries in both astronomy and physics; he is perhaps the single man best described as the founder of modern science. Galileo was the first to make astronomical use of the telescope. His discoveries of the four largest moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus were persuasive evidence for the Copernican cosmology. His discoveries of craters on the moon and blemishes on the sun discredited the ancient belief in the perfection of the heavens.

Результаты (английский) 3:

astronomy is a branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. it is difficult to fix the exact date when systematic observations of the heavens by. in the mound civilizations the regularity of celestial motions was recognized.and attempts were made to keep records and predict future events. the first practical function of astronomy was to provide a basis for the calendar, the units of month and year was determined by astronomical observations. later, astronomy in navigation and timekeeping. the chinese had a working calendar as early as the 13th century b.c.chinese astronomy is best known today for its observations or supernovas, or "guest stars", as they were called. the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians were also active in astronomy. the earliest astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy from the pseudoscience of astrology. in fact,an early motivation for the detailed study of planetary positions was the preparation of horoscopes. the highest development of astronomy in the ancient world came with the greeks in the period from 600 b.c. to a.d. 400.
the methods employed by the greek astronomers were quite distinct from those of earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonian.the Babylonian approach was numerological and best recordings for studying the complex lunar motions overwhelming that are of interest to the mesopotamian peoples. the greek approach, on the contrary, was geometric and schematic, best recordings for complete cosmological models. thales, a philosopher gardens of the 6th century b.c., corrupted, and with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy.